Procesos de Fundición.

CENTRIFUGAL CASTING sometimes called rotocasting, is a metal casting process that uses centrifugal force to form cylindrical parts. This differs from most metal casting processes, which use gravity or pressure to fill the mold. In centrifugal casting, a permanent mold made from steel, cast iron, or graphite is typically used. However, the use of expendable sand molds is also posible. The casting process is usually performed on a horizontal centrifugal casting machine (vertical machines are also available) and includes the following steps:

1. Mold preparation - The walls of a cylindrical mold are first coated with a refractory ceramic coating, which involves a few steps (application, rotation, drying, and baking). Once prepared and secured, the mold is rotated about its axis at high speeds (300-3000 RPM), typically around 1000 RPM.

2. Pouring - Molten metal is poured directly into the rotating mold, without the use of runners or a gating system. The centrifugal force drives the material towards the mold walls as the mold fills.

 3. Cooling - With all of the molten metal in the mold, the mold remains spinning as the metal cools. Cooling begins quickly at the mold walls and proceeds inwards.

 4. Casting removal - After the casting has cooled and solidified, the rotation is stopped and the casting can be removed.

 5. Finishing - While the centrifugal force drives the dense metal to the mold walls, any less dense impurities or bubbles flow to the inner surface of the casting. As a result, secondary processes such as machining, grinding, or sand-blasting, are required to clean and smooth the inner diameter of the part.

Centrifugal casting is used to produce axi-symmetric parts, such as cylinders or disks, which are typically hollow. Due to the high centrifugal forces, these parts have a very fine grain on the outer surface and possess mechanical properties approximately 30% greater than parts formed with static casting methods. These parts may be cast from ferrous metals such as low alloy steel, stainless steel, and iron, or from non-ferrous alloys such as aluminum, bronze, copper, magnesium, and nickel. Centrifugal casting is performed in wide variety of industries, including aerospace, industrial, marine, and power transmission. Typical parts include bearings, bushings, coils, cylinder liners, nozzles, pipes/tubes, pressure vessels, pulleys, rings, and wheels.

Capabilities

Typical Feasible Shapes: Thin-walled: Cylindrical Solid: Cylindrical Thin-walled: Complex Solid: Complex Part size: Diameter: 1 - 120 in. Length: Up to 50 ft. Weight: Up to 5 tons Materials: Metals Alloy Steel Carbon Steel Cast Iron Stainless Steel Aluminum Copper Nickel Surface finish - Ra: 63 - 500 μin 32 - 500 μin Tolerance: ± 0.01 in. ± 0.002 in. Max wall thickness: 0.1 - 5.0 in. 0.1 - 5.0 in. Quantity: 100 - 10000 1 - 10000 Lead time: Weeks Days Advantages: Can form very large parts Good mechanical properties Good surface finish and accuracy Low equipment cost Low labor cost Little scrap generated Disadvantages: Limited to cylindrical parts Secondary machining is often required for inner diameter Long lead time possible Applications: Pipes, wheels, pulleys, nozzles

Die casting is a manufacturing process that can produce geometrically complex metal parts through the use of reusable molds, called dies. The die casting process involves the use of a furnace, metal, die casting machine, and die. The metal, typically a non-ferrous alloy such as aluminum or zinc, is melted in the furnace and then injected into the dies in the die casting machine. There are two main types of die casting machines - hot chamber machines (used for alloys with low melting temperatures, such as zinc) and cold chamber machines (used for alloys with high melting temperatures, such as aluminum). The differences between these machines will be detailed in the sections on equipment and tooling. However, in both machines, after the molten metal is injected into the dies, it rapidly cools and solidifies into the final part, called the casting. The steps in this process are described in greater detail in the next section.

Capabilities

Typical Feasible Shapes: Thin-walled: Complex Solid: Cylindrical Solid: Cubic Solid: Complex Flat Thin-walled: Cylindrical Thin-walled: Cubic Part size: Weight: 0.5 oz - 500 lb Materials: Metals Aluminum Lead Magnesium Tin Zinc Copper Surface finish - Ra: 32 - 63 μin 16 - 125 μin Tolerance: ± 0.015 in. ± 0.0005 in. Max wall thickness: 0.05 - 0.5 in. 0.015 - 1.5 in. Quantity: 10000 - 1000000 1000 - 1000000 Lead time: Months Weeks Advantages: Can produce large parts Can form complex shapes High strength parts Very good surface finish and accuracy High production rate Low labor cost Scrap can be recycled Disadvantages: Trimming is required High tooling and equipment cost Limited die life Long lead time Applications: Engine components, pump components, appliance housing

Disclaimer: All process specifications reflect the approximate range of a process's capabilities and should be viewed only as a guide. Actual capabilities are dependent upon the manufacturer, equipment, material, and part requirements.

The process cycle for die casting consists of five main stages, which are explained below. The total cycle time is very short, typically between 2 seconds and 1 minute.

1. Clamping 

- The first step is the preparation and clamping of the two halves of the die. Each die half is first cleaned from the previous injection and then lubricated to facilitate the ejection of the next part. The lubrication time increases with part size, as well as the number of cavities and side-cores. Also, lubrication may not be required after each cycle, but after 2 or 3 cycles, depending upon the material. After lubrication, the two die halves, which are attached inside the die casting machine, are closed and securely clamped together. Sufficient force must be applied to the die to keep it securely closed while the metal is injected. The time required to close and clamp the die is dependent upon the machine - larger machines (those with greater clamping forces) will require more time. This time can be estimated from the dry cycle time of the machine.

2. Injection 

- The molten metal, which is maintained at a set temperature in the furnace, is next transferred into a chamber where it can be injected into the die. The method of transferring the molten metal is dependent upon the type of die casting machine, whether a hot chamber or cold chamber machine is being used. The difference in this equipment will be detailed in the next section. Once transferred, the molten metal is injected at high pressures into the die. Typical injection pressure ranges from 1,000 to 20,000 psi. This pressure holds the molten metal in the dies during solidification. The amount of metal that is injected into the die is referred to as the shot. The injection time is the time required for the molten metal to fill all of the channels and cavities in the die. This time is very short, typically less than 0.1 seconds, in order to prevent early solidification of any one part of the metal. The proper injection time can be determined by the thermodynamic properties of the material, as well as the wall thickness of the casting. A greater wall thickness will require a longer injection time. In the case where a cold chamber die casting machine is being used, the injection time must also include the time to manually ladle the molten metal into the shot chamber.

3. Cooling 

- The molten metal that is injected into the die will begin to cool and solidify once it enters the die cavity. When the entire cavity is filled and the molten metal solidifies, the final shape of the casting is formed. The die can not be opened until the cooling time has elapsed and the casting is solidified. The cooling time can be estimated from several thermodynamic properties of the metal, the maximum wall thickness of the casting, and the complexity of the die. A greater wall thickness will require a longer cooling time. The geometric complexity of the die also requires a longer cooling time because the additional resistance to the flow of heat.

4. Ejection 

- After the predetermined cooling time has passed, the die halves can be opened and an ejection mechanism can push the casting out of the die cavity. The time to open the die can be estimated from the dry cycle time of the machine and the ejection time is determined by the size of the casting's envelope and should include time for the casting to fall free of the die. The ejection mechanism must apply some force to eject the part because during cooling the part shrinks and adheres to the die. Once the casting is ejected, the die can be clamped shut for the next injection.

5. Trimming 

- During cooling, the material in the channels of the die will solidify attached to the casting. This excess material, along with any flash that has occurred, must be trimmed from the casting either manually via cutting or sawing, or using a trimming press. The time required to trim the excess material can be estimated from the size of the casting's envelope. The scrap material that results from this trimming is either discarded or can be reused in the die casting process. Recycled material may need to be reconditioned to the proper chemical composition before it can be combined with non-recycled metal and reused in the die casting process.

Die cast part

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Equipment

The two types of die casting machines are a hot chamber machine and cold chamber machine.

• Hot chamber die casting machine 

- Hot chamber machines are used for alloys with low melting temperatures, such as zinc, tin, and lead. The temperatures required to melt other alloys would damage the pump, which is in direct contact with the molten metal. The metal is contained in an open holding pot which is placed into a furnace, where it is melted to the necessary temperature. The molten metal then flows into a shot chamber through an inlet and a plunger, powered by hydraulic pressure, forces the molten metal through a gooseneck channel and into the die. Typical injection pressures for a hot chamber die casting machine are between 1000 and 5000 psi. After the molten metal has been injected into the die cavity, the plunger remains down, holding the pressure while the casting solidifies. After solidification, the hydraulic system retracts the plunger and the part can be ejected by the clamping unit. Prior to the injection of the molten metal, this unit closes and clamps the two halves of the die. When the die is attached to the die casting machine, each half is fixed to a large plate, called a platen. The front half of the die, called the cover die, is mounted to a stationary platen and aligns with the gooseneck channel. The rear half of the die, called the ejector die, is mounted to a movable platen, which slides along the tie bars. The hydraulically powered clamping unit actuates clamping bars that push this platen towards the cover die and exert enough pressure to keep it closed while the molten metal is injected. Following the solidification of the metal inside the die cavity, the clamping unit releases the die halves and simultaneously causes the ejection system to push the casting out of the open cavity. The die can then be closed for the next injection.

Hot chamber die casting machine - Opened

Hot chamber die casting machine - Closed

• Cold chamber die casting machine 

- Cold chamber machines are used for alloys with high melting temperatures that can not be cast in hot chamber machines because they would damage the pumping system. Such alloys include aluminum, brass, and magnesium. The molten metal is still contained in an open holding pot which is placed into a furnace, where it is melted to the necessary temperature. However, this holding pot is kept separate from the die casting machine and the molten metal is ladled from the pot for each casting, rather than being pumped. The metal is poured from the ladle into the shot chamber through a pouring hole. The injection system in a cold chamber machine functions similarly to that of a hot chamber machine, however it is usually oriented horizontally and does not include a gooseneck channel. A plunger, powered by hydraulic pressure, forces the molten metal through the shot chamber and into the injection sleeve in the die. The typical injection pressures for a cold chamber die casting machine are between 2000 and 20000 psi. After the molten metal has been injected into the die cavity, the plunger remains forward, holding the pressure while the casting solidifies. After solidification, the hydraulic system retracts the plunger and the part can be ejected by the clamping unit. The clamping unit and mounting of the dies is identical to the hot chamber machine. See the above paragraph for details.

Cold chamber die casting machine - Opened

Cold chamber die casting machine - Closed

Machine specifications

Both hot chamber and cold chamber die casting machines are typically characterized by the tonnage of the clamp force they provide. The required clamp force is determined by the projected area of the parts in the die and the pressure with which the molten metal is injected. Therefore, a larger part will require a larger clamping force. Also, certain materials that require high injection pressures may require higher tonnage machines. The size of the part must also comply with other machine specifications, such as maximumshot volume, clamp stroke, minimum mold thickness, and platen size.

Die cast parts can vary greatly in size and therefore require these measures to cover a very large range. As a result, die casting machines are designed to each accommodate a small range of this larger spectrum of values. Sample specifications for several different hot chamber and cold chamber die casting machines are given below.

Type	Clamp force (ton)	Max. shot volume (oz.)	Clamp stroke (in.)	Min. mold thickness (in.)	Platen size (in.)
Hot chamber	100	74	11.8	5.9	25 x 24
Hot chamber	200	116	15.8	9.8	29 x 29
Hot chamber	400	254	21.7	11.8	38 x 38
Cold chamber	100	35	11.8	5.9	23 x 23
Cold chamber	400	166	21.7	11.8	38 x 38
Cold chamber	800	395	30.0	15.8	55 x 55
Cold chamber	1600	1058	39.4	19.7	74 x 79
Cold chamber	2000	1517	51.2	25.6	83 x 83

Tooling

The dies into which the molten metal is injected are the custom tooling used in this process. The dies are typically composed of two halves - the cover die, which is mounted onto a stationary platen, and the ejector die, which is mounted onto a movable platen. This design allows the die to open and close along its parting line. Once closed, the two die halves form an internal part cavity which is filled with the molten metal to form the casting. This cavity is formed by two inserts, the cavity insert and the core insert, which are inserted into the cover die and ejector die, respectively. The cover die allows the molten metal to flow from the injection system, through an opening, and into the part cavity. The ejector die includes a support plate and the ejector box, which is mounted onto the platen and inside contains the ejection system. When the clamping unit separates the die halves, the clamping bar pushes the ejector plate forward inside the ejector box which pushes the ejector pins into the molded part, ejecting it from the core insert. Multiple-cavity dies are sometimes used, in which the two die halves form several identical part cavities.

Die channels

The flow of molten metal into the part cavity requires several channels that are integrated into the die and differs slightly for a hot chamber machine and a cold chamber machine. In a hot chamber machine, the molten metal enters the die through a piece called a sprue bushing (in the cover die) and flows around the sprue spreader (in the ejector die). The sprue refers to this primary channel of molten metal entering the die. In a cold chamber machine, the molten metal enters through an injection sleeve. After entering the die, in either type of machine, the molten metal flows through a series of runners and enters the part cavities through gates, which direct the flow. Often, the cavities will contain extra space called overflow wells, which provide an additional source of molten metal during solidification. When the casting cools, the molten metal will shrink and additional material is needed. Lastly, small channels are included that run from the cavity to the exterior of the die. These channels act as venting holes to allow air to escape the die cavity. The molten metal that flows through all of these channels will solidify attached to the casting and must be separated from the part after it is ejected. One type of channel that does not fill with material is a cooling channel. These channels allow water or oil to flow through the die, adjacent to the cavity, and remove heat from the die.

Die assembly - Open (Hot chamber)

Die assembly - Closed (Hot chamber)

Die assembly - Exploded view (Hot chamber)

Die assembly - Opened (Cold chamber)

Die assembly - Closed (Cold chamber)

Die assembly - Exploded view (Cold chamber)

Die Design

In addition to these many types of channels, there are other design issues that must be considered in the design of the dies. Firstly, the die must allow the molten metal to flow easily into all of the cavities. Equally important is the removal of the solidified casting from the die, so a draft angle must be applied to the walls of the part cavity. The design of the die must also accommodate any complex features on the part, such as undercuts, which will require additional die pieces. Most of these devices slide into the part cavity through the side of the die, and are therefore known as slides, or side-actions. The most common type of side-action is a side-core which enables an external undercut to be molded. Another important aspect of designing the dies is selecting the material. Dies can be fabricated out of many different types of metals. High grade tool steel is the most common and is typically used for 100-150,000 cycles. However, steels with low carbon content are more resistant to cracking and can be used for 1,000,000 cycles. Other common materials for dies include chromium, molybdenum, nickel alloys, tungsten, and vanadium. Any side-cores that are used in the dies can also be made out of these materials.

Materials

Die casting typically makes use of non-ferrous alloys. The four most common alloys that are die cast are shown below, along with brief descriptions of their properties. (Follow the links to search the material library).

Materials	Properties
Aluminum alloys	Low density Good corrosion resistance High thermal and electrical conductivity High dimensional stability Relatively easy to cast Requires use of a cold chamber machine
Copper alloys	High strength and toughness High corrosion and wear resistance High dimensional stability Highest cost Low die life due to high melting temperature Requires use of a cold chamber machine
Magnesium alloys	Very low density High strength-to-weight ratio Excellent machinability after casting Use of both hot and cold chamber machines
Zinc alloys	High density High ductility Good impact strength Excellent surface smoothness allowing for painting or plating Requires such coating due to susceptibility to corrosion Easiest to cast Can form very thin walls Long die life due to low melting point Use of a hot chamber machine

The selection of a material for die casting is based upon several factors including the density, melting point, strength, corrosion resistance, and cost. The material may also affect the part design. For example, the use of zinc, which is a highly ductile metal, can allow for thinner walls and a better surface finish than many other alloys. The material not only determines the properties of the final casting, but also impacts the machine and tooling. Materials with low melting temperatures, such as zinc alloys, can be die cast in a hot chamber machine. However, materials with a higher melting temperature, such as aluminum and copper alloys, require the use of cold chamber machine. The melting temperature also affects the tooling, as a higher temperature will have a greater adverse effect on the life of the diez

Possible Defects

Defect	Causes
Flash	Injection pressure too high Clamp force too low
Unfilled sections	Insufficient shot volume Slow injection Low pouring temperature
Bubbles	Injection temperature too high Non-uniform cooling rate
Hot tearing	Non-uniform cooling rate
Ejector marks	Cooling time too short Ejection force too high

Many of the above defects are caused by a non-uniform cooling rate. A variation in the cooling rate can be caused by non-uniform wall thickness or non-uniform die temperature

Design Rules

Maximum wall thickness

• Decrease the maximum wall thickness of a part to shorten the cycle time (injection time and cooling time specifically) and reduce the part volume

INCORRECT   Part with thick walls

CORRECT   Part redesigned with thin walls

• Uniform wall thickness will ensure uniform cooling and reduce defects

INCORRECT   Non-uniform wall thickness (t1 ≠ t2)

CORRECT   Uniform wall thickness (t1 = t2)

Corners

• Round corners to reduce stress concentrations and fracture
• Inner radius should be at least the thickness of the walls

INCORRECT   Sharp corner

CORRECT   Rounded corner

Draft

• Apply a draft angle to all walls parallel to the parting direction to facilitate removing the part from the die.

• Aluminum: 1° for walls, 2° for inside cores
• Magnesium: 0.75° for walls, 1.5° for inside cores
• Zinc: 0.5° for walls, 1° for inside cores

INCORRECT   No draft angle

CORRECT Draft angle (q)

Undercuts

• Minimize the number of external undercuts

• External undercuts require side-cores which add to the tooling cost
• Some simple external undercuts can be cast by relocating the parting line

Simple external undercut

Die cannot separate

New parting line allows undercut

• Redesigning a feature can remove an external undercut

Part with hinge

Hinge requires side-core

Redesigned hinge

New hinge can be cast

• Remove all internal undercuts that require lifters - Jamming of these devices often occurs in die casting

• Designing an opening in the side of a part can allow a side-core to form an internal undercut

Internal undercut accessible from the side

• Redesigning a part can remove an internal undercut

Part with internal undercut

Die cannot separate

Part redesigned with slot

New part can be cast

• Minimize number of side-action directions

• Additional side-action directions will limit the number of possible cavities in the die

Cost Drivers

Material cost

The material cost is determined by the weight of material that is required and the unit price of that material. The weight of material is clearly a result of the part volume and material density; however, the part's maximum wall thickness can also play a role. The weight of material that is required includes the material that fills the channels of the die. A part with thinner walls will require a larger system of channels to ensure that the entire part fills quickly and evenly, and therefore will increase the amount of required material. However, this additional material is typically less than the amount of material saved from the reduction in part volume, a result of thinner walls. Therefore, despite the larger channels, using thinner walls will typically lower the material cost.

Production cost

The production cost is primarily calculated from the hourly rate and the cycle time. The hourly rate is proportional to the size of the die casting machine being used, so it is important to understand how the part design affects machine selection. Die casting machines are typically referred to by the tonnage of the clamping force they provide. The required clamping force is determined by the projected area of the part and the pressure with which the molten metal is injected. Therefore, a larger part will require a larger clamping force, and hence a more expensive machine. Also, certain materials that require high injection pressures may require higher tonnage machines. The size of the part must also comply with other machine specifications, such as clamp stroke, platen size, and shot capacity. In addition to the size of the machine, the type of machine (hot chamber vs. cold chamber) will also affect the cost. The use of materials with high melting temperatures, such as aluminum, will require cold chamber machines which are typically more expensive. 

The cycle time can be broken down into the injection time, cooling time, and resetting time. By reducing any of these times, the production cost will be lowered. The injection time can be decreased by reducing the maximum wall thickness of the part. Also, certain materials can be injected faster than others, but the injection times are so short that the cost saving are negligible. Substantial time can be saved by using a hot chamber machine because in cold chamber machines the molten metal must be ladled into the machine. This ladling time is dependent upon the shot weight. The cooling time is also decreased for lower wall thicknesses, as they require less time to cool all the way through. Several thermodynamic properties of the material also affect the cooling time. Lastly, the resetting time depends on the machine size and the part size. A larger part will require larger motions from the machine to open, close, and eject the part, and a larger machine requires more time to perform these operations. Also, the use of any side-cores will slow this process.

Tooling cost

The tooling cost has two main components - the die set and the machining of the cavities. The cost of the die set is primarily controlled by the size of the part's envelope. A larger part requires a larger, more expensive, die set. The cost of machining the cavities is affected by nearly every aspect of the part's geometry. The primary cost driver is the size of the cavity that must be machined, measured by the projected area of the cavity (equal to the projected area of the part and projected holes) and its depth. Any other elements that will require additional machining time will add to the cost, including the feature count, parting surface, side-cores, tolerance, and surface roughness. 

The quantity of parts and material used will affect the tooling life and therefore impact the cost. Materials with high casting temperatures, such as copper, will cause a short tooling life. Zinc, which can be cast at lower temperatures, allows for a much longer tooling life. This effect becomes more cost prohibitive with higher production quantities. 

One final consideration is the number of side-action directions, which can indirectly affect the cost. The additional cost for side-cores is determined by how many are used. However, the number of directions can restrict the number of cavities that can be included in the die. For example, the die for a part which requires 3 side-core directions can only contain 2 cavities. There is no direct cost added, but it is possible that the use of more cavities could provide further savings.

Investment casting is one of the oldest manufacturing processes, dating back thousands of years, in which molten metal is poured into an expendable ceramic mold. The mold is formed by using a wax pattern - a disposable piece in the shape of the desired part. The pattern is surrounded, or "invested", into ceramic slurry that hardens into the mold. Investment casting is often referred to as "lost-wax casting" because the wax pattern is melted out of the mold after it has been formed. Lox-wax processes are one-to-one (one pattern creates one part), which increases production time and costs relative to other casting processes. However, since the mold is destroyed during the process, parts with complex geometries and intricate details can be created.

Investment casting can make use of most metals, most commonly using aluminum alloys, bronze alloys, magnesium alloys, cast iron, stainless steel, and tool steel. This process is beneficial for casting metals with high melting temperatures that can not be molded in plaster or metal. Parts that are typically made by investment casting include those with complex geometry such as turbine blades or firearm components. High temperature applications are also common, which includes parts for the automotive, aircraft, and military industries.

Investment casting requires the use of a metal die, wax, ceramic slurry, furnace, molten metal, and any machines needed for sandblasting, cutting, or grinding. The process steps include the following:

1. Pattern creation - The wax patterns are typically injection molded into a metal die and are formed as one piece. Cores may be used to form any internal features on the pattern. Several of these patterns are attached to a central wax gating system (sprue, runners, and risers), to form a tree-like assembly. The gating system forms the channels through which the molten metal will flow to the mold cavity.
2. Mold creation - This "pattern tree" is dipped into a slurry of fine ceramic particles, coated with more coarse particles, and then dried to form a ceramic shell around the patterns and gating system. This process is repeated until the shell is thick enough to withstand the molten metal it will encounter. The shell is then placed into an oven and the wax is melted out leaving a hollow ceramic shell that acts as a one-piece mold, hence the name "lost wax" casting.
3. Pouring - The mold is preheated in a furnace to approximately 1000°C (1832°F) and the molten metal is poured from a ladle into the gating system of the mold, filling the mold cavity. Pouring is typically achieved manually under the force of gravity, but other methods such as vacuum or pressure are sometimes used.
4. Cooling - After the mold has been filled, the molten metal is allowed to cool and solidify into the shape of the final casting. Cooling time depends on the thickness of the part, thickness of the mold, and the material used.
5. Casting removal - After the molten metal has cooled, the mold can be broken and the casting removed. The ceramic mold is typically broken using water jets, but several other methods exist. Once removed, the parts are separated from the gating system by either sawing or cold breaking (using liquid nitrogen).
6. Finishing - Often times, finishing operations such as grinding or sandblasting are used to smooth the part at the gates. Heat treatment is also sometimes used to harden the final part.

Investment Casting

Capabilities

Typical Feasible Shapes: Thin-walled: Complex Solid: Cylindrical Solid: Cubic Solid: Complex Flat Thin-walled: Cylindrical Thin-walled: Cubic Part size: Weight: 0.02 oz - 500 lb Materials: Metals Alloy Steel Carbon Steel Stainless Steel Aluminum Copper Nickel Cast Iron Lead Magnesium Tin Titanium Zinc Surface finish - Ra: 50 - 125 μin 16 - 300 μin Tolerance: ± 0.005 in. ± 0.002 in. Max wall thickness: 0.06 - 0.80 in. 0.025 - 5.0 in. Quantity: 10 - 1000 1 - 1000000 Lead time: Weeks Days Advantages: Can form complex shapes and fine details Many material options High strength parts Very good surface finish and accuracy Little need for secondary machining Disadvantages: Time-consuming process High labor cost High tooling cost Long lead time possible Applications: Turbine blades, armament parts, pipe fittings, lock parts, handtools, jewelry

Permanent mold casting is a metal casting process that shares similarities to both sand casting and die casting. As in sand casting, molten metal is poured into a mold which is clamped shut until the material cools and solidifies into the desired part shape. However, sand casting uses an expendable mold which is destroyed after each cycle. Permanent mold casting, like die casting, uses a metal mold (die) that is typically made from steel or cast iron and can be reused for several thousand cycles. Because the molten metal is poured into the die and not forcibly injected, permanent mold casting is often referred to as gravity die casting.

Permanent mold casting is typically used for high-volume production of small, simple metal parts with uniform wall thickness. Non-ferrous metals are typically used in this process, such as aluminum alloys, magnesium alloys, and copper alloys. However, irons and steels can also be cast using graphite molds. Common permanent mold parts include gears and gear housings, pipe fittings, and other automotive and aircraft components such as pistons, impellers, and wheels.

The permanent mold casting process consists of the following steps:

1. Mold preparation - First, the mold is pre-heated to around 300-500°F (150-260°C) to allow better metal flow and reduce defects. Then, a ceramic coating is applied to the mold cavity surfaces to facilitate part removal and increase the mold lifetime.
2. Mold assembly - The mold consists of at least two parts - the two mold halves and any cores used to form complex features. Such cores are typically made from iron or steel, but expendable sand cores are sometimes used. In this step, the cores are inserted and the mold halves are clamped together.
3. Pouring - The molten metal is poured at a slow rate from a ladle into the mold through a sprue at the top of the mold. The metal flows through a runner system and enters the mold cavity.
4. Cooling - The molten metal is allowed to cool and solidify in the mold.
5. Mold opening - After the metal has solidified, the two mold halves are opened and the casting is removed.
6. Trimming - During cooling, the metal in the runner system and sprue solidify attached to the casting. This excess material is now cut away.

Permanent Mold Casting

Using these basic steps, other variations on permanent mold casting have been developed to accommodate specific applications. Examples of these variations include the following:

• Slush Casting - As in permanent mold casting, the molten metal is poured into the mold and begins to solidify at the cavity surface. When the amount of solidified material is equal to the desired wall thickness, the remaining slush (material that has yet to completely solidify) is poured out of the mold. As a result, slush casting is used to produce hollow parts without the use of cores.
• Low Pressure Permanent Mold Casting - Instead of being poured, the molten metal is forced into the mold by low pressure air (< 1 bar). The application of pressure allows the mold to remain filled and reduces shrinkage during cooling. Also, finer details and thinner walls can be molded.
• Vacuum Permanent Mold Casting - Similar to low pressure casting, but vacuum pressure is used to fill the mold. As a result, finer details and thin walls can be molded and the mechanical properties of the castings are improved

Capabilities

Typical Feasible Shapes: Thin-walled: Complex Solid: Cylindrical Solid: Cubic Solid: Complex Flat Thin-walled: Cylindrical Thin-walled: Cubic Part size: Weight: 2 oz - 660 lb Materials: Aluminum Copper Magnesium Metals Alloy Steel Carbon Steel Cast Iron Stainless Steel Lead Nickel Tin Titanium Zinc Surface finish - Ra: 125 - 250 μin 32 - 400 μin Tolerance: ± 0.015 in. ± 0.01 in. Max wall thickness: 0.08 - 2 in. 0.08 - 2 in. Quantity: 1000 - 100000 500 - 1000000 Lead time: Months Weeks Advantages: Can form complex shapes Good mechanical properties Many material options Low porosity Low labor cost Scrap can be recycled Disadvantages: High tooling cost Long lead time possible Applications: Gears, wheels, housings, engine components

Sand casting, the most widely used casting process, utilizes expendable sand molds to form complex metal parts that can be made of nearly any alloy. Because the sand mold must be destroyed in order to remove the part, called the casting, sand casting typically has a low production rate. The sand casting process involves the use of a furnace, metal, pattern, and sand mold. The metal is melted in the furnace and then ladled and poured into the cavity of the sand mold, which is formed by the pattern. The sand mold separates along a parting line and the solidified casting can be removed. The steps in this process are described in greater detail in the next section.

Sand casting overview

Sand casting is used to produce a wide variety of metal components with complex geometries. These parts can vary greatly in size and weight, ranging from a couple ounces to several tons. Some smaller sand cast parts include components as gears, pulleys, crankshafts, connecting rods, and propellers. Larger applications include housings for large equipment and heavy machine bases. Sand casting is also common in producing automobile components, such as engine blocks, engine manifolds, cylinder heads, and transmission cases.

Capabilities

Typical Feasible Shapes: Thin-walled: Complex Solid: Cylindrical Solid: Cubic Solid: Complex Flat Thin-walled: Cylindrical Thin-walled: Cubic Part size: Weight: 1 oz - 450 ton Materials: Metals Alloy Steel Carbon Steel Cast Iron Stainless Steel Aluminum Copper Magnesium Nickel Lead Tin Titanium Zinc Surface finish - Ra: 300 - 600 μin 125 - 2000 μin Tolerance: ± 0.03 in. ± 0.015 in. Max wall thickness: 0.125 - 5 in. 0.09 - 40 in. Quantity: 1 - 1000 1 - 1000000 Lead time: Days Hours Advantages: Can produce very large parts Can form complex shapes Many material options Low tooling and equipment cost Scrap can be recycled Short lead time possible Disadvantages: Poor material strength High porosity possible Poor surface finish and tolerance Seondary machining often required Low production rate High labor cost Applications: Engine blocks and manifolds, machine bases, gears, pulleys

Process Cycle

The process cycle for sand casting consists of six main stages, which are explained below.

1. Mold-making - The first step in the sand casting process is to create the mold for the casting. In an expendable mold process, this step must be performed for each casting. A sand mold is formed by packing sand into each half of the mold. The sand is packed around the pattern, which is a replica of the external shape of the casting. When the pattern is removed, the cavity that will form the casting remains. Any internal features of the casting that cannot be formed by the pattern are formed by separate cores which are made of sand prior to the formation of the mold. Further details on mold-making will be described in the next section. The mold-making time includes positioning the pattern, packing the sand, and removing the pattern. The mold-making time is affected by the size of the part, the number of cores, and the type of sand mold. If the mold type requires heating or baking time, the mold-making time is substantially increased. Also, lubrication is often applied to the surfaces of the mold cavity in order to facilitate removal of the casting. The use of a lubricant also improves the flow the metal and can improve the surface finish of the casting. The lubricant that is used is chosen based upon the sand and molten metal temperature.
2. Clamping - Once the mold has been made, it must be prepared for the molten metal to be poured. The surface of the mold cavity is first lubricated to facilitate the removal of the casting. Then, the cores are positioned and the mold halves are closed and securely clamped together. It is essential that the mold halves remain securely closed to prevent the loss of any material.
3. Pouring - The molten metal is maintained at a set temperature in a furnace. After the mold has been clamped, the molten metal can be ladled from its holding container in the furnace and poured into the mold. The pouring can be performed manually or by an automated machine. Enough molten metal must be poured to fill the entire cavity and all channels in the mold. The filling time is very short in order to prevent early solidification of any one part of the metal.
4. Cooling - The molten metal that is poured into the mold will begin to cool and solidify once it enters the cavity. When the entire cavity is filled and the molten metal solidifies, the final shape of the casting is formed. The mold can not be opened until the cooling time has elapsed. The desired cooling time can be estimated based upon the wall thickness of the casting and the temperature of the metal. Most of the possible defects that can occur are a result of the solidification process. If some of the molten metal cools too quickly, the part may exhibit shrinkage, cracks, or incomplete sections. Preventative measures can be taken in designing both the part and the mold and will be explored in later sections.
5. Removal - After the predetermined solidification time has passed, the sand mold can simply be broken, and the casting removed. This step, sometimes called shakeout, is typically performed by a vibrating machine that shakes the sand and casting out of the flask. Once removed, the casting will likely have some sand and oxide layers adhered to the surface. Shot blasting is sometimes used to remove any remaining sand, especially from internal surfaces, and reduce the surface roughness.
6. Trimming - During cooling, the material from the channels in the mold solidifies attached to the part. This excess material must be trimmed from the casting either manually via cutting or sawing, or using a trimming press. The time required to trim the excess material can be estimated from the size of the casting's envelope. A larger casting will require a longer trimming time. The scrap material that results from this trimming is either discarded or reused in the sand casting process. However, the scrap material may need to be reconditioned to the proper chemical composition before it can be combined with non-recycled metal and reused

Equipment

Mold

In sand casting, the primary piece of equipment is the mold, which contains several components. The mold is divided into two halves - the cope (upper half) and the drag (bottom half), which meet along a parting line. Both mold halves are contained inside a box, called a flask, which itself is divided along this parting line. The mold cavity is formed by packing sand around the pattern in each half of the flask. The sand can be packed by hand, but machines that use pressure or impact ensure even packing of the sand and require far less time, thus increasing the production rate. After the sand has been packed and the pattern is removed, a cavity will remain that forms the external shape of the casting. Some internal surfaces of the casting may be formed by cores.

Cores are additional pieces that form the internal holes and passages of the casting. Cores are typically made out of sand so that they can be shaken out of the casting, rather than require the necessary geometry to slide out. As a result, sand cores allow for the fabrication of many complex internal features. Each core is positioned in the mold before the molten metal is poured. In order to keep each core in place, the pattern has recesses called core prints where the core can be anchored in place. However, the core may still shift due to buoyancy in the molten metal. Further support is provided to the cores by chaplets. These are small metal pieces that are fastened between the core and the cavity surface. Chaplets must be made of a metal with a higher melting temperature than that of the metal being cast in order to maintain their structure. After solidification, the chaplets will have been cast inside the casting and the excess material of the chaplets that protrudes must be cut off.

In addition to the external and internal features of the casting, other features must be incorporated into the mold to accommodate the flow of molten metal. The molten metal is poured into a pouring basin, which is a large depression in the top of the sand mold. The molten metal funnels out of the bottom of this basin and down the main channel, called the sprue. The sprue then connects to a series of channels, called runners, which carries the molten metal into the cavity. At the end of each runner, the molten metal enters the cavity through a gate which controls the flow rate and minimizes turbulence. Often connected to the runner system are risers. Risers are chambers that fill with molten metal, providing an additional source of metal during solidification. When the casting cools, the molten metal will shrink and additional material is needed. A similar feature that aids in reducing shrinkage is an open riser. The first material to enter the cavity is allowed to pass completely through and enter the open riser. This strategy prevents early solidification of the molten metal and provides a source of material to compensate for shrinkage. Lastly, small channels are included that run from the cavity to the exterior of the mold. These channels act as venting holes to allow gases to escape the cavity. The porosity of the sand also allows air to escape, but additional vents are sometimes needed. The molten metal that flows through all of the channels (sprue, runners, and risers) will solidify attached to the casting and must be separated from the part after it is removed.

Sand Mold - Opened

Sand Mold - Closed

Sand

The sand that is used to create the molds is typically silica sand (SiO₂) that is mixed with a type of binder to help maintain the shape of the mold cavity. Using sand as the mold material offers several benefits to the casting process. Sand is very inexpensive and is resistant to high temperatures, allowing many metals to be cast that have high melting temperatures. There are different preparations of the sand for the mold, which characterize the following four unique types of sand molds.

• Greensand mold - Greensand molds use a mixture of sand, water, and a clay or binder. Typical composition of the mixture is 90% sand, 3% water, and 7% clay or binder. Greensand molds are the least expensive and most widely used.
• Skin-dried mold - A skin-dried mold begins like a greensand mold, but additional bonding materials are added and the cavity surface is dried by a torch or heating lamp to increase mold strength. Doing so also improves the dimensional accuracy and surface finish, but will lower the collapsibility.  Dry skin molds are more expensive and require more time, thus lowering the production rate.
• Dry sand mold - In a dry sand mold, sometimes called a cold box mold, the sand is mixed only with an organic binder. The mold is strengthened by baking it in an oven. The resulting mold has high dimensional accuracy, but is expensive and results in a lower production rate.
• No-bake mold - The sand in a no-bake mold is mixed with a liquid resin and hardens at room temperature.

The quality of the sand that is used also greatly affects the quality of the casting and is usually described by the following five measures:

• Strength - Ability of the sand to maintain its shape.
• Permeability - Ability to allow venting of trapped gases through the sand. A higher permeability can reduce the porosity of the mold, but a lower permeability can result in a better surface finish. Permeability is determined by the size and shape of the sand grains.
• Thermal stability - Ability to resist damage, such as cracking, from the heat of the molten metal.
• Collapsibility - Ability of the sand to collapse, or more accurately compress, during solidification of the casting. If the sand can not compress, then the casting will not be able to shrink freely in the mold and can result in cracking.
• Reusability - Ability of the sand to be reused for future sand molds.

Packing equipment

There exists many ways to pack the sand into the mold. As mentioned above, the sand can be hand packed into the mold. However, there are several types of equipment that provide more effective and efficient packing of the sand. One such machine is called a sandslinger and fills the flask with sand by propelling it under high pressure. A jolt-squeeze machine is a common piece of equipment which rapidly jolts the flask to distribute the sand and then uses hydraulic pressure to compact it in the flask. Another method, called impact molding, uses a controlled explosion to drive and compact the sand into the flask. In what can be considered an opposite approach, vacuum molding packs the sand by removing the air between the flask and a thin sheet of plastic that covers the pattern.

The packing of the sand is also automated in a process known as flask-less molding. Despite the name of the process, a flask is still used. In conventional sand casting, a new flask is used for each mold. However, flask-less molding uses a single master flask in an automated process of creating sand molds. The flask moves along a conveyor and has sand blown against the pattern inside. This automated process greatly increases the production rate and also has many benefits to the castings. Flask-less molding can produce uniform, high density molds that result in excellent casting quality. Also, the automated process causes little variation between castings.

Tooling

The main tooling for sand casting is the pattern that is used to create the mold cavity. The pattern is a full size model of the part that makes an impression in the sand mold. However, some internal surfaces may not be included in the pattern, as they will be created by separate cores. The pattern is actually made to be slightly larger than the part because the casting will shrink inside the mold cavity. Also, several identical patterns may be used to create multiple impressions in the sand mold, thus creating multiple cavities that will produce as many parts in one casting.

Several different materials can be used to fabricate a pattern, including wood, plastic, and metal. Wood is very common because it is easy to shape and is inexpensive, however it can warp and deform easily. Wood also will wear quicker from the sand. Metal, on the other hand, is more expensive, but will last longer and has higher tolerances. The pattern can be reused to create the cavity for many molds of the same part. Therefore, a pattern that lasts longer will reduce tooling costs. A pattern for a part can be made many different ways, which are classified into the following four types:

• Solid pattern - A solid pattern is a model of the part as a single piece. It is the easiest to fabricate, but can cause some difficulties in making the mold. The parting line and runner system must be determined separately. Solid patterns are typically used for geometrically simple parts that are produced in low quantities.

Solid pattern

• Split pattern - A split pattern models the part as two separate pieces that meet along the parting line of the mold. Using two separate pieces allows the mold cavities in the cope and drag to be made separately and the parting line is already determined. Split patterns are typically used for parts that are geometrically complex and are produced in moderate quantities.

Split pattern

• Match-plate pattern - A match-plate pattern is similar to a split pattern, except that each half of the pattern is attached to opposite sides of a single plate. The plate is usually made from wood or metal. This pattern design ensures proper alignment of the mold cavities in the cope and drag and the runner system can be included on the match plate. Match-plate patterns are used for larger production quantities and are often used when the process is automated.

Match-plate pattern

• Cope and drag pattern - A cope and drag pattern is similar to a match plate pattern, except that each half of the pattern is attached to a separate plate and the mold halves are made independently. Just as with a match plate pattern, the plates ensure proper alignment of the mold cavities in the cope and drag and the runner system can be included on the plates. Cope and drag patterns are often desirable for larger castings, where a match-plate pattern would be too heavy and cumbersome. They are also used for larger production quantities and are often used when the process is automated.

Cope and drag pattern

Another piece of tooling used in sand casting is a core-box. If the casting requires sand cores, the cores are formed in these boxes, which are similar to a die and can be made of wood, plastic, or metal just like the pattern. The core-boxes can also contain multiple cavities to produce several identical cores.

Materials

Sand casting is able to make use of almost any alloy. An advantage of sand casting is the ability to cast materials with high melting temperatures, including steel, nickel, and titanium. The four most common materials that are used in sand casting are shown below, along with their melting temperatures.

Materials	Melting temperature
Aluminum alloys	1220 °F (660 °C)
Brass alloys	1980 °F (1082 °C)
Cast iron	1990-2300 °F (1088-1260 °C)
Cast steel	2500 °F (1371 °C)

Possible Defects

Defect	Causes
Unfilled sections	Insufficient material Low pouring temperature
Porosity	Melt temperature is too high Non-uniform cooling rate Sand has low permeability
Hot tearing	Non-uniform cooling rate
Surface projections	Erosion of sand mold interior A crack in the sand mold Mold halves shift

Design Rules

Maximum wall thickness

• Decrease the maximum wall thickness of a part to shorten the cycle time (cooling time specifically) and reduce the part volume

INCORRECT   Part with thick walls

CORRECT   Part redesigned with thin walls

• Uniform wall thickness will ensure uniform cooling and reduce defects. A thick section, often referred to as a hot spot, causes uneven cooling and can result in shrinkage, porosity, or cracking.

INCORRECT   Non-uniform wall thickness (t1 ≠ t2)

CORRECT   Uniform wall thickness (t1 = t2)

Corners

• Round corners to reduce stress concentrations and fracture
• Inner radius should be at least the thickness of the walls

INCORRECT   Sharp corner

CORRECT   Rounded corner

Draft

• Apply a draft angle of 2° - 3° to all walls parallel to the parting direction to facilitate removing the part from the mold.

INCORRECT   No draft angle

CORRECT Draft angle (q)

Machining allowance

• Add 0.0625 - 0.25 in. (0.16 - 0.64 mm) to part dimensions to allow for machining to obtain a smooth surface.

Cost Drivers

Material cost 

The material cost for sand casting includes the cost of the metal, melting the metal, the mold sand, and the core sand. The cost of the metal is determined by the weight of the part, calculated from part volume and material density, as well the unit price of the material. The melting cost will also be greater for a larger part weight and is influenced by the material, as some materials are more costly to melt. However, the melting cost in typically insignificant compared to the metal cost. The amount of mold sand that is used, and hence the cost, is also proportional to the weight of the part. Lastly, the cost of the core sand is determined by the quantity and size of the cores used to cast the part.

Production cost 

The production cost includes a variety of operations used to cast the part, including core-making, mold-making, pouring, and cleaning. The cost of making the cores depends on the volume of the cores and the quantity used to cast the part. The cost of the mold-making is not greatly influenced by the part geometry when automated equipment is being used. However, the inclusion of cores will slightly slow the process and therefore increase the cost. Lastly, the cost of pouring the metal and cleaning the final casting are both driven by the weight of the part. It will take longer to pour and to clean a larger and heavier casting.

Tooling cost 

The tooling cost has two main components - the pattern and the core-boxes. The pattern cost is primarily controlled by the size of the part (both the envelope and the projected area) as well as the part's complexity. The cost of the core-boxes first depends on their size, a result of the quantity and size of the cores that are used to cast the part. Much like the pattern, the complexity of the cores will affect the time to manufacture this part of the tooling (in addition to the core size), and hence the cost.

The quantity of parts that are cast will also impact the tooling cost. A larger production quantity will require the use of a tooling material, for both the pattern and core-boxes, that will not wear under the required number of cycles. The use or a stronger, more durable, tooling material will significantly increase the cost.